The Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype - Instruction - Sumber Ilmu Pengetahuan

 - INSTRUCTION MANUAL -

Part 1: The Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype

 - Instruction Manual -

 J.E.L. Carter, Ph.D.

Department of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences

San Diego State University

San Diego, CA. 92182-7251. U.S.A.

 

Introduction

  The technique of somatotyping is used to appraise body shape and composition. The

somatotype is defined as the quantification of the present shape and composition of the human body.  It

is expressed in a three-number rating representing endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy

components respectively, always in the same order.  Endomorphy is the relative fatness, mesomorphy is

the relative musculo -skeletal robustness, and ectomorphy is the relative linearity or slenderness of a

physique. For example, a 3-5-2 rating is recorded in this manner and is read as three, five, two.  These

numbers give the magnitude of each of the three components.  Ratings on each compone nt of ½ to 2½

are considered low, 3 to 5 are moderate, 5½ to 7 are high, and 7½ and above are very high (Carter &

Heath, 1990). The rating is phenotypical, based on the concept of geometrical size-dissociation and

applicable to both genders from childhood to old age.

  The Heath-Carter method of somatotyping is the most commonly used today.  There are three

ways of obtaining the somatotype.

 (1) The anthropometric method, in which anthropometry is used to estimate the criterion

somatotype.

 (2) The photoscopic method, in which ratings are made from a standardized photograph.

 (3) The anthropometric plus photoscopic method, which combines anthropometry and ratings

from a photograph - it is the criterion method.

 Because most people do not get the opportunity to become criterion raters using photographs,

the anthropometric method has proven to be the most useful for a wide variety of applications.

 Purpose

  The purpose of this chapter is to provide a simple description of the anthropometric somatotype

method.  It is intended for those who are interested in learning "how to do it".  To obtain a fuller

understanding of somatotyping, its uses and limitations, the reader should consult "Somatotyping -

Development and Applications", by Carter and Heath (1990).

 Equipment for anthropometry

 

The Anthropometric Somatotype Method

  Anthropometric equipment includes a stadiometer or height scale and headboard, weighing

scale, small sliding caliper, a flexible steel or fiberglass tape measure, and a skinfold caliper. The small

sliding caliper is a modification of a standard anthropometric caliper or engineer’s vernier type caliper.

For accurate measuring of biepicondylar breadths the caliper branches must extend to 10 cm and the

tips should be 1.5 cm in diameter (Carter, 1980). Skinfold calipers should have upscale interjaw

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Somatotype Instruc tion Manual        3

pressures of 10 gm/mm

 over the full range of openings. The Harpenden and Holtain calipers are highly

recommended. The Slim Guide caliper produces almost identical results and is less expensive. Lange

and  Lafayette calipers also may be used but tend to produce higher readings than the other calipers

(Schmidt & Carter, 1990). Recommended equipment may be purchased as a kit (TOM Kit) from

Rosscraft, Surrey, Canada (email: rosscraft@shaw.ca, or www.tep2000.com).

 Measurement techniques

  Ten anthropometric dimensions are needed to calculate the anthropometric somatotype: stretch

stature, body mass, four skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, supraspinale, medial calf), two bone breadths

(biepicondylar humerus and femur), and two limb girths (arm flexed and tensed, calf). The following

descriptions are adapted from Carter and Heath (1990). Further details are given in Ross and Marfell-

Jones (1991), Carter (1996), Ross, Carr and Carter (1999), Duquet and Carter (2001) and the ISAK

Manual (2001).

  Stature (height). Taken against a height scale or stadiometer. Take height with the subject

standing straight, against an upright wall or stadiometer, touching the wall with heels, buttocks and back.

Orient the head in the Frankfort plane (the upper border of the ear opening and the lower border of the

eye socket on a horizontal line), and the heels together. Instruct the subject to stretch upward and to

take and hold a full breath. Lower the headboard until it firmly touches the vertex.

  Body mass (weight). The subject, wearing minimal clothing, stands in the center of the scale

platform. Record weight to the nearest tenth of a kilogram. A correction is made for clothing so that

nude weight is used in subsequent calculations.

  Skinfolds. Raise a fold of skin and subcutaneous tissue firmly between thumb and forefinger of

the left hand and away from the underlying muscle at the marked site. Apply the edge of the plates on

the caliper branches 1 cm below the fingers of the left hand and allow them to exert their full pressure

before reading at 2 sec the thickness of the fold. Take all skinfolds on the right side of the body. The

subject stands relaxed, except for the calf skinfold, which is taken with the subject seated.

  Triceps skinfold. With the subject's arm hanging loosely in the anatomical position, raise a fold

at the back of the arm at a level halfway on a line connecting the acromion and the olecranon processes.

  Subscapular skinfold. Raise the subscapular skinfold on a line from the inferior angle of the

scapula in a direction that is obliquely downwards and laterally at 45 degrees.

  Supraspinale skinfold. Raise the fold 5-7 cm (depending on the size of the subject) above the

anterior superior iliac spine on a line to the anterior axillary border and on a diagonal line going

downwards and medially at 45 degrees. (This skinfold was formerly called suprailiac, or anterior

suprailiac. The name has been changed to distinguish it from other skinfolds called "suprailiac", but taken at different locations.) Medial calf skinfold. Raise a vertical skinfold on the medial side of the leg, at the level of the maximum girth of the calf.

  Biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, right. The width between the medial and lateral

epicondyles of the humerus, with the shoulder and elbow flexed to 90 degrees. Apply the caliper at an

angle approximately bisecting the angle of the elbow. Place firm pressure on the crossbars in order to

compress the subcutaneous tissue.

  Biepicondylar breadth of the femur, right. Seat the subject with knee bent at a right angle.

Measure the greatest distance between the lateral and medial epicondyles of the femur with firm

pressure on the crossbars in order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.

Somatotype Instruction Manual        4

  Upper arm girth, elbow flexed and tensed, right. The subject flexes the shoulder to 90 degrees

and the elbow to 45 degrees, clenches the hand, and maximally contracts the elbow flexors and

extensors. Take the measurement at the greatest girth of the arm.

  Calf girth, right. The subject stands with feet slightly apart. Place the tape around the calf and

measure the maximum circumference.

  Read stature and girths to the nearest mm, biepicondylar diameters to the nearest 0.5 mm, and

skinfolds to the nearest 0.1 mm (Harpenden caliper) or 0.5 mm on other calipers.

  Traditionally, for the anthropometric somatotype, the larger of the right and left breadths and

girths have been used.  When possible this should be done for individual assessment.  However, in large

surveys it is recommended that all measures (including skinfolds) be taken on the right side. The

anthropometrist should mark the sites and repeat the complete sequence a second time. For further

calculations, the duplicated measurements should be averaged. For more reliable values, relatively

inexperienced measurers should take triplicate measurements and use the median value.

 Reliability of measurements

  The advantages of anthropometry are lost unless the measurements are accurate and reliable

(i.e. precise). It is essential to learn precise measurement techniques and accurate calculations. Although

at first sight anthropometry appears easy to the beginning investigator, obtaining a high level of skill and

reliability requires training under a criterion anthropometrist and considerable practice.

  Although calculation of the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype is an objective procedure,

the validity of th rating depends on the reliability of the measurements used. Investigators should report

test-retest reliability of the measurements. In comparisons of distributions of two independent measures

on the same subjects, the means should not differ significantly, and the Pearson product-moment r

should be above 0.90. Specifically, height and weight should have test-retest values of r = 0.98. Girths

and diameters should have r's between 0.92 and 0.98. For skinfolds r's between 0.90 and 0.98 are

reasonable. Currently, many anthropometrists use the technical error of measurement (TEM) for

evaluating the consistency, or precision, of the measurer on a given variable. The TEM is the square

root of the sum of the differences between measures one and two squared, divided by twice the number

of subjects (Cameron, 1984, Norton and Olds, 1996). The TEM provides an estimate of the

measurement error that is in the units of measurement of the variable. This value indicates that two thirds

of the time a measurement should come within +/- of the TEM. The TEM can be converted to a

percentage of the mean of the total number of measures (grand mean). This allows for comparisons

among measures or for groups of variables. Generally, the TEM for skinfolds should be about 5%, and

that for breadths and girths 1%, and for height about 0.5% The equations are as follows:

  TEM = (

å

d

2

 / 2n)

0.5

 ; and %TEM = 100 (TEM/grand mean)

 Calculating the Anthropometric Somatotype

  There are two ways to calculate the anthropometric somatotype.

 (A) Enter the data onto a somatotype rating form.

 (B) Enter the data into equations derived from the rating form.

 The use of the rating form will be described first.  Figures 1 and 2 are examples of calculations

using the rating form.  It is assumed that the measurements have been recorded on an appropriate

Somatotype Instruc tion Manual        5

recording form and average or median values calculated before transfer to the rating form. A blank

rating form is provided in Figure 3.

 A. The Heath-Carter Somatotype Rating Form

 (1) Record pertinent identification data in top section of rating form. 

 Endomorphy rating (steps 2-5)

 (2) Record the measurements for each of the four skinfolds.

 (3) Sum the triceps, subscapular, and supraspinale skinfolds; record the sum in the box opposite SUM3

SKINFOLDS.  Correct for height by multiplying this sum by (170.18/height in cm).

 (4) Circle the closest value in the SUM3 SKINFOLDS table to the right.  The table is read vertically

from low to high in columns and horizontally from left to right in rows.  "Lower limit" and "upper limit" on the rows provide exact boundaries for each column.  These values are circled only when SUM3 SKINFOLDS are within 1 mm of the limit.  In most cases circle the value in the row "midpoint".

 (5) In the row for endomorphy circle the value directly under the column for the value circled in number

(4) above.

 Mesomorphy rating (steps 6-10)

 (6) Record height and breadths of humerus and femur in the appropriate boxes.  Make the corrections

for skinfolds before recording girths of biceps and calf.  (Skinfold correction: Convert triceps skinfold to

cm by dividing by 10. Subtract converted triceps skinfold from the biceps girth. Convert calf skinfold to

cm, subtract from calf girth.)

 (7) In the height row directly to the right of the recorded value, circle the height value nearest to the

measured height of the subject.  (Note: Regard the height row as a continuous scale.)

 (8) For each bone breadth and girth circle the number nearest the measured value in the appropriate

row.  (Note: Circle the lower value if the measurement falls midway between two values.  This

conservative procedure is used because the la rgest girths and breadths are recorded.)

 (9) Deal only with columns, not numerical values for the two procedures below.  Find the average

deviation of the circled values for breadths and girths from the circled value in the height column as

follows:

 (a) Column deviations to the right of the height column are positive deviations.  Deviations to the

left are negative deviations.  (Circled values directly under the height column have deviations of

zero and are ignored.)

 (b) Calculate the algebraic sum of the ± deviations (D).  Use this formula: mesomorphy = (D/8)

+ 4.0. Round the obtained value of mesomorphy to the nearest one-half (½) rating unit.

 (10) In the row for mesomorphy circle the closest value for mesomorphy obtained in number 9 above. 

(If the point is exactly midway between two rating points, circle the value closest to 4 in the row. This

conservative regression toward 4 guards against spuriously extreme ratings.)

 Ectomorphy rating (steps 11-14).

 (11) Record weight (kg).

Somatotype Instruction Manual        6

 (12) Obtain height divided by cube root of weight (HWR).  Record HWR in the appropriate box.

 (13) Circle the closest value in the HWR table to the right.  (See note in number (4) above.)

 (14) In the row for ectomorphy circle the ectomorphy value directly below the circled HWR.

 (15) Move to the bottom section of the rating form. In the row for Anthropometric Somatotype, record

the circled ratings for Endomorphy, Mesomorphy and Ectomorphy.

 (16) Sign your name to the right of the recorded rating.

  The identification data in the upper section of the rating form are somewhat arbitrary.

Investigators may change these to suit their purposes.

 Principles of the calculations 

  Two principles are important in understanding the calculation of mesomorphy on the rating form.

(1) When the measurements of bone breadths and limb girths lie to the right of the circled height column,

the subject has greater musculo -skeletal robustness relative to height (i.e. higher mesomorphy) than a

subject whose values lie to the left of the height column. The average deviation of the circled values for

breadths and girths is the best index of average musculo-skeletal development relative to height.  (2)

The table is constructed so that the subject is rated 4 in mesomorphy when the average deviation falls in

the column under the subject's height, or when the four circled values fall in the subject's height column. 

That is, the average deviation (±) to the left or right of the height column is added to or subtracted from

4.0 in mesomorphy.

 Height-Weight ratio calculation

  The height-weight ratio (HWR), or height divided by the cube root of weight (stature/mass)

as it is used in somatotyping, may be determined by using a hand calculator.  A calculator with a y to the

x power (y

x

) key is needed.  To get the cube root, enter mass, i.e. base (y), press y

x

, enter .3333, and

press 'equals'.  If there is an INV y

x

 function, this may be used instead by entering 3 (for the cube root).

 Limitations of the rating form

  Although the rating form provides a simple method of calculating the anthropometric

somatotype, especially in the field, it has some limitations.  First, the mesomorphy table at the low and

high ends does not include some values for small subjects, e.g. children, or for large subjects, e.g. heavy

weightlifters.  The mesomorphy table can be extrapolated at the lower and upper ends for these

subjects. Second, some rounding errors may occur in calculating the mesomorphy rating, because the

subject's height often is not the same as the column height. If the anthropometric somatotype is regarded

as an estimate this second limitation is not a serious problem.  Nevertheless, the following procedures

described in Carter (1980) and Carter and Heath (1990) can correct these problems.

 B. Equations for a decimal anthropometric somatotype

  The second method of obtaining the anthropometric somatotype is by means of equations into

which the data are entered.

 endomorphy = - 0.7182 + 0.1451 (X) - 0.00068 (X

2

) + 0.0000014 (X

) where X = (sum of triceps, subscapular and supraspinale skinfolds) multiplied by (170.18/height in cm).

This is called height-corrected endomorphy and is the preferred method for calculating endomorphy.

Somatotype Instruc tion Manual        7

 The equation to calculate mesomorphy is:

mesomorphy = 0.858 x humerus breadth + 0.601 x femur breadth + 0.188 x corrected arm

girth + 0.161 x corrected calf girth – height 0.131 + 4.5.

 Three different equations are used to calculate ectomorphy according to the height-weight

 ratio:

If HWR is greater than or equal to 40.75 then

  ectomorphy = 0.732 HWR - 28.58

 If HWR is less than 40.75 but greater than 38.25 then

  ectomorphy = 0.463 HWR - 17.63

 If HWR is equal to or less than 38.25 then

  ectomorphy = 0.1

For subjects 573 and B-188 respectively (Figures 1, 2), the resulting somatotypes (using height

corrected endomorphy) are 1.6-5.4-3.2, and 3.0-2.1-4.8,

 The preceding equations, derived from data used by Heath and Carter (1967), use metric units.

The equation for endomorphy is a third degree polynomial. The equations for mesomorphy and

ectomorphy are linear. (When the HWR is below 40.75 a different equation is used for ectomorphy.) If

the equation calculation for any component is zero or negative, a value of 0.1 is assigned as the

component rating, because by definition ratings cannot be zero or negative. 

Checking the results

 Now that the anthropometric somatotype has been calculated, is the result logical?  There are

several ways to check your results for measurement or calculation errors.

 Using the rating form examples in Figures 1 and 2, the resulting somatotypes rounded to the

nearest half-unit, are 1½-5½-3 and 3-2-5 for subjects 573 and B-188 respectively.  Are these

reasonable somatotypes?  Certain somatotype ratings are not biologically possible, although our

examples are not among them.  For example, a 2-2-2 or a 7-8-7 are impossible somatotypes. 

Generally, somatotypes high in endomorphy and/or mesomorphy cannot also be high in ectomorphy.

Conversely, those high in ectomorphy cannot be high in endomorphy and/or mesomorphy; and those

low in endomorphy and mesomorphy must be high in ectomorphy.

 Next, look at the pattern of circled values in the endomorphy and mesomorphy sections of the

rating form.  Are there inconsistencies in the data?  For endomorphy, are the skinfold values

reasonable?  For mesomorphy, is there one measure (excluding height) that is quite far apart from the

others?  In Figure 1, upper limb circled values are slightly to the right of, and larger relative to height,

than the lower limb measures.  However, this pattern is not unusual and is quite acceptable in this case.

On the other hand, if the femur width was 7.95 cm instead of 9.75 cm, or corrected calf girth was 44.9

cm instead of 37.1 cm, such large deviations would suggest errors.  Check for errors in recording and

remeasure the subject if possible.  Also, check to see that the correct skinfolds in cm have been

subtracted for the corrected girth values.  In Figure 2, the small corrected biceps girth (23.4 cm) looks

suspiciously low, but in this subject it truly represented her small muscular development in the upper

limb.

Somatotype Instruction Manual        8

 If the calculation for any component is zero or negative, a value of 0.1 is assigned as the

component rating, because by definition ratings cannot be zero or negative.  The photoscopic rating

would be one -half (½).  If such low values occur the raw data should be checked.  Values less than 1.0

are highly unlikely to occur for endomorphy and mesomorphy, but are not unusual for ectomorphy.

Component ratings should be rounded to nearest 0.1 of a unit, or nearest half-unit depending on their

subsequent use.

 After the values are entered into the equations (either by calculator or computer program) rather

than onto the rating form, it is impossible to check the pattern of values in either the endomorphy or

mesomorphy section as in the rating form, although the raw values can be examined for errors.  This is a

limitation of using the equations.  Further checking can be done for either method by using the HWR

and by plotting the somatotype.

 There is a relationship between the HWR and the likely somatotypes (see Fig. 4).  The

somatotypes in the rows are those most likely to occur for the given HWR.  For example, given a HWR

of approximately 49.6, the most likely somatotypes are 1-1-8, 1-2-9 or 2-1-9.  (The hyphens are left

out of the somatotypes to conserve space.)  The next most likely somatotypes are those in the rows

directly above and below the row for 49.6.  If none of these somatotypes match or are not close when

interpolating for half-unit ratings, there may be errors in the data or calculations.  However, other factors

such as heavy meals or dehydration can affect body weight sufficiently to alter the "normal" HWR.

 For subject 573, HWR = 43.4, and Figure 4 shows that in the row for a HWR of 43.64 the

somatotypes 1-6-3 and 2-5-3 occur.  His 1½-5½-3 is a combination of these two ratings, therefore his

anthropometric rating agrees with that expected from the HWR table.  For subject B-188, HWR =

45.6, her 3-2-5 somatotype appears in the row above that for her HWR.  Her ectomorphy is

borderline between 4½ and 5, which suggests that she might be a 3-2-4½, i.e. half way between the

two rows.  The somatotypes for both subjects appear to be reasonable.

[A program for calculating individual and  group data is provided in a Microsoft Excel

 program, HC Stype

Calculator.xls. See Part 3.]

Plotting the Somatotype 

Traditionally, the three-number somatotype rating is plotted on a two-dimensional somatochart using

X,Y coordinates derived from the rating (see Fig. 4).  The coordinates are calculated as follows:

  X = ectomorphy - endomorphy

  Y = 2 x mesomorphy - (endomorphy + ectomorphy)

For subject 573, X = 1.5, and Y = 6.5.  For subject B-188, X = 2.0, and Y = -4.0.  These points on

the somatochart are called somatoplots.  If the somatoplot for the subject is far from that expected

when compared to a suitable reference group, check the data and calculations.  Because Figure 5 is

quite crowded with numbers, the final somatoplots could be projected onto a somatochart without the

numbers.  Figures 6a,b are two blank somatocharts, one with printed somatotypes and one without.

These may be copied for use.

Other versions of the rating form may be used instead. See Fig. 3, p. 153 in Carter (1996) for the

adaptation by Tim Olds. For descriptions and illustrations in Spanish of the anthropometric somatotype

rating form and somatocharts refer to the web site of Mariano A. Godnic (ARG), www.nutrinfo.com.ar.

The Somatotype Photograph

J.E.L. Carter, Ph.D.

Department of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences

San Diego State University

San Diego, CA. 92182-7251. U.S.A.

Email: lindsay.carter@sdsu.edu

 The figures in this manual may be reproduced for class use

without specific permission.

 Revised by J.E.L. Carter

San Diego, CA. U.S.A.

 This revision is adapted from the original instruction manual by the author and a later version published

in a CD-Rom titled “Anthropometry Illustrated” (Ross, Carr & Carter, 1999), in association with TeP

and ROSSCRAFT,

Surrey, Canada.

 March 2002

Somatotype Instruction Manual        2